...What is Mass?
...What is Gravity?
This web page proposes a 100% scientific and rational explanation of mass and gravity.
This new theory is part of the "Spacetime Model", a Theory of Everything
based on spacetime. This web page provides a new and simple explanation of mass and gravity
enigma using only four dimensions: x, y, z and t. No extra dimensions, as in the Higgs Boson
or String theories, are needed.
Physicists who prefer a mathematical demonstration of the proposed theory can download
the original document, a 54 pages PDF file. The download URL is located at the end of this web
page. This PDF document is more accurate than the present HTML web page and contains experimentations
and validation using mathematics. In particular, the Schwarzschild Metric and
Newton Law are not calculated from EFE (Einstein-Hilbert Field Equations) but from scratch,
using a new method based on the Hooke Law. This mathematical demonstration validates the proposed theory.
The Spacetime Curvature
If we drop a billiard ball in a container filled with water, it is the volume
of the ball, and not its mass, which produces the water displacement.
The same phenomenon also exists in spacetime. Contrary to preconceived ideas,
it is the volume of elementary particles, and not their mass, which deforms spacetime. So:
Any volume inserted in spacetime necessarily produces a curvature of it
This deduction leads to a question: "what is a volume?"
Notes:
1) This example does not correspond exactly to spacetime since water is not elastic.
It would be more exact to compare spacetime to a kind of deformable crystal or a flexible
polystyrene foam. Since spacetime is elastic, if the volume of the central object is removed,
the curvature disappears. 2) The figure was simplified to two dimensions for teaching purposes.
3) The constitution of the central object is important. However, this subject is covered in
Part 2 of the Spacetime Model. 4) The time component of spacetime is also curved.
Open and Closed Volumes
Let's now replace the billiard ball used in the preceding example by a balloon
having the same volume. This does not change anything.
However, if we make some holes in the balloon, water will go inside
it and the displacement of water will disappear (but the volume continues existing).
The same phenomenon also exists in quantum mechanics. We have two classes of volumes:
-
Closed volumes (fig. A): These volumes make a displacement of spacetime.
As we will see further, the spacetime curvature produces a "mass effect". So, closed
volumes have a real mass-volume equivalence, which may be written: m=k.v, with k=conversion
constant, 5.9239x1017 kg/m3 for the proton (CODATA 2006).
Nuclear matter like quarks, electrons, protons, neutrons, muons, mesons, lambdas...
are examples of closed volumes.
-
Open Volumes (fig. B): These volumes exist but do not produce any displacement
of spacetime. If there is no curvature, there is no "mass effect" either. Orbitals of
atoms are examples of open volumes.
All objects of the universe are combinations of closed volumes (with mass) and open volumes (massless).
This is why we have the illusion, on Earth, that mass and volume are two different dimensions.
Gravity
Since spacetime is elastic (Einstein), its curvature produces pressures
on two volumes. This tends to bring them closer to each other.
The "principle of split", which comes from the fluid theory of the
nineteenth century, also confirms this explanation.
Let's imagine a sphere (fig. A). If we split this sphere down the middle (fig. B),
each half is subjected to only one force. We have a movement of each half toward
the other. Transposed to spacetime, this phenomenon is simply “gravity”, which
is a pressure force on volumes.
It is important to note that, in these two examples, it is the volume
(not the mass) which makes the curvature of spacetime.
Therefore, contrary to preconceived ideas,
Gravity is not a mysterious attractive force between masses, but a simple pressure force
(Hooke Force) exerted by spacetime on (closed) volumes.
Finally, the explanation of mass and gravity is quite simple and, as we see, doesn't
need extra dimensions as in the Higgs Model or the String Theory.
Current Theory vs Proposed Theory
Note: Any massive object is made of two quantities: a closed volume, which curves spacetime,
and a "mass effect" produced by the curvature of spacetime. Therefore, a "mass
effect" is associated to each closed volume. Only volume physically exists. Mass doesn't exist
in concrete terms. Mass is an "effect" due to the pressure of spacetime on closed volumes. Mass is
a kind of virtual quantity.
Examples
Attractive Force vs Pressure Force
In this first example, imagine that you hold a very light polystyrene ball in your hand.
A flexible polystyrene foam, which is curved by the ball, replaces spacetime.
The curvature of the foam (= spacetime) produces a pressure on the top of the ball,
toward Earth (not represented on the figure). If you close yours eyes, you will
sense that the ball is heavier. It is not the mass of the ball, which increases,
as we could think, but the pressure on the top of it. However, the result is identical.
It we replace the foam by spacetime, we can say:
Attractive force (gravity) = Pressure force produced by spacetime
What is Volume?
In this theory, we must reconsider what we call "Volume". For example, what is the real volume of earth + moon? We have two
different points of view.
- A: The individual volume of the earth is added to that of the moon.
- B: The empty space between the earth and the moon has been added too.
Translated into quantum mechanics, the earth is the nucleus, the moon is an electron, and empty
space is the vacuum between the nucleus and electrons, i.e. 99,999 % of the atom volume. Since
the empty space doesn't curve spacetime, there is no reason to take into account this empty
space for mass and gravity calculations.
Therefore, experimentations measuring the volume of atoms or molecules with the (B) scheme may be
interesting for various reasons, but in General Relativity, we must take into account only closed
volumes, as in (A).
In other words, for mass and gravity calculations, all open volumes must be excluded.
The Atom Volume
In atoms, electrons are on empty orbitals already crossed on both sides by spacetime.
Orbitals are "open volumes" since they do not curve spacetime. Orbitals are massless.
Finally, an atom is a combination of closed volumes (with mass) and open volumes (massless).
Experimentation confirms that atoms are made of:
- Closed volumes, with mass : protons, neutrons and electrons
- Open volumes, massless : orbitals
If we need to know the volume of an atom, we can take either the "matter volume" (nucleus
+ electrons), or the entire "visible volume" (nucleus + electrons + empty space, or orbitals).
However, as indicated in the preceding paragraph, we must always have in mind that the only kind
of volumes which must be taken into account in mass and gravity calculations is the real volume of
the nuclear matter (nucleus and electrons), excluding orbitals since empty space doesn't curve spacetime.
Hydrogen vs Oxygen
Oxygen has 16 times more nucleons than hydrogen. So, the curvature of spacetime
will be x16. The pressure of spacetime on closed volumes (the nucleus and
electrons) will be x16. Finally, the "mass-effect" of the pressure
of spacetime on the closed volumes of an oxygen atom will be x16 too.
Since m = k.v, we can say: "(closed) volumes curve spacetime"
instead of "masses curve spacetime".
Mass-Volume Equivalence
This last example, very simple to understand, demonstrates that spacetime
is curved by volumes, which seems logical, not by masses.
On our left, we have an eraser and, on our right, a pen that weighs two times more.
If we remove the 99.999% of vacuum existing inside the atoms of the two objects, we
obtain two "heaps" of nucleons. We will have two times more nucleons for the pen than
for the eraser because all the mass is practically concentrated in nucleons
(for teaching purposes, electrons, binding energy, gluons etc... have been ignored).
Since all nucleons have the same volume (proton ≠ neutrons), the pen nucleons will have a
total volume twice superior to those of the eraser.
Therefore, the pen will produce 2X more curvature of spacetime since its "closed" volume is twice
that of the eraser. In other words, the spacetime will produce a pressure x2 times stronger over
the pen than over the eraser in the pen/eraser-Earth context.
So, the pen will be two times heavier than the eraser.
This simple experiment demonstrates that, contrary to a preconceived idea:
Gravity isn't an attractive force between masses but a pressure force (Hooke Force) exerted by
spacetime on closed volumes
Conclusions
In conclusion, the following points must be noted:
-
Contrary to other theories (Higgs...), the Spacetime Model is very simple.
The latter matches with the simplicity of Nature.
-
The Spacetime Model exactly matches Einstein's ideas: "The
universe would have only 4 dimensions, no one more". It's not a proof
per see, but an important indication.
-
The dimensions of a theory must match those of corresponding experimentations, i.e. 4D/4D,
5D/5D... nD/nD. Until today, all mass and gravity experimentations has been conducted in 4D
(x, y, z and t). So, the mass and gravity theory associated to these experimentations are necessarily
in 4D. Indeed, it seems strange to have a 5D (Higgs), 6D ... nD theories which lead to 4D
experimentations... Why should we have more dimensions in theories than in experimentations?
-
The mass and gravity phenomena already exists on Earth, like demonstrated in our example of a
billiard ball into water. Another experimentation is described in the PDF document. Since we
know that Nature always tends to repeat itself, the "Spacetime Model" is much more credible
than theories which have no counterpart on Earth.
-
Contrary to other theories, this explanation is in perfect accordance with the Stress Tensor
used in fluid mechanics, which is at the origin of Einstein Field Equations. The PDF document
covers thoroughly this subject.
-
This explanation is also in accordance with the constitution of atoms:
nucleus is a closed volume with mass, and orbitals are massless open volumes.
-
At last, the PDF document contains validation using mathematics.
In particular, the Schwarzschild Metric and Newton Law are not calculated from EFE
(Einstein-Hilbert Field Equations) but from scratch, using the Hooke Law.
These considerations mean that the proposed theory in 4D is much more credible than any other
theory using more dimensions.
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98% of the readers consider that the PDF document is "very interesting"
Download Instructions
To download the original 52 pages PDF document V 3.01, please hit the following URL link:
Download the Mass and Gravity PDF document
Vista or Adobe Reader Users: If you get a download error,
click here.
To download the cover, a full 24 bits color JPEG image, please hit the following URL link.
Download the cover
This explanation of Mass and Gravity is Part 1 of the Spacetime Model.
To download the four other parts, please hit the corresponding URL link:
Part 2 : Constitution of Matter
Part 3 : Quarks and Antimatter
Part 4 : Electromagnetism
Part 5 : Forces, Universe
Author and site designer: Jacky JEROME
Author's email: diaverre@orange.fr
Last update:
29/06/09
Note from the Author
I hope my work is of interest to you. If so, I will appreciate having the URL of this web page,
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